Search

Beyond Knowledge and Conditioning: Zhuangzi and J. Krishnamurti on the Dao of the Immeasurable

Author(s)

Yiru Wang

Affiliation(s)

Department of Southeast Asian Studies, National University of Singapore, Kent Ridge, Singapore *Corresponding Author.

Abstract

This article conducts a systematic comparative analysis of the core ideas of ancient Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi and 20th-century Indian philosopher Krishnamurti from the perspective of comparative philosophy. Although the historical eras, cultural backgrounds and ideological traditions of the two are quite different, their fundamental concerns are highly consistent: the self-disciplined self obscures the inherent awareness and hinders the path to inner freedom. This article conducts a comparison around four thematic dimensions: At the ontological level, Zhuangzi's "Dao" and Krishnamurti's "immeasurable" both oppose being reduced by a solidified conceptual system. In the criticism of knowledge and authority, Zhuangzi's "loss of self" and Krishanamurti's "burden of knowing" reveal how postnatal discipline hinders true awareness. The two present parallel insights in epistemology. At the level of virtue and inner order, both reject externally imposed norms while affirming spontaneous inner harmony, with only differences in their origin and realization methods. At the level of self-cultivation practice, Zhuangzi's "heart fasting" and "sitting in obliviation" as well as Krishnamurti's meditation all aim at achieving inner peace, but there are differences in the paths of gradual self-cultivation and direct enlightenment. This cross-cultural dialogue holds extensive theoretical significance for re-examining the relationship among knowledge, authority and inner freedom in contemporary education.

Keywords

Zhuangzi; J. Krishnamurti; Comparative Philosophy; Conditioned Mind; Inner Freedom

References

[1] Zhuangzi. (1968). “Knowledge rambling in the north” (B. Watson, Trans.). In The complete works of Chuang (pp. 161–171). Columbia University Press. (Original work written ca. 3rd century BCE) [2] Krishnamurti, J. (1969). Freedom from the known. Harper & Row. [3] Harte, R. J. (2020). Poetic philosophy in Plato and Zhuangzi [Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Riverside. [4] Kjellberg, P., & Ivanhoe, P. J. (Eds.). (1996). Essays on skepticism, relativism, and ethics in the Zhuangzi. State University of New York Press. [5] Zhu, K. (2024). Toward a deeper appreciation of correlative thinking: A comparative analysis of Zhuangzi's Fish Parable and Merleau-Ponty's philosophy of body. Metaphilosophy, 55(2), 249–263. [6] Ivanhoe, P. J. (2017). Oneness: East Asian conceptions of virtue, happiness, and how we are all connected. Oxford University Press. [7] Hansen C. (1992). A Daoist theory of Chinese thought: A philosophical interpretation. Oxford University Press. [8] Van Norden, B. W., & Ivanhoe, P. J. (2023). Readings in classical Chinese philosophy. Hackett Publishing. [9] Allinson, R. E. (1989). Chuang-Tzu for spiritual transformation: An analysis of the inner chapters. State University of New York Press. [10] Trowbridge, J. (2004). Skepticism and pluralism: Ways of living a life of awareness as recommended by the Zhuangzi [Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. [11] Lutyens, M. (1975). Krishnamurti: The years of awakening. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. [12] Lutyens, M. (1983). The years of fulfilment. John Murray. [13] Lutyens, M. (1988). The open door. John Murray. [14] Jayakar, P. (1986). Krishnamurti: A biography. Harper & Row. [15] Fouéré, F. (1952). On the true teachings of Krishnamurti. Victor Gollancz [16] Shringy, R. K. (1977). Philosophy of J. Krishnamurti. Munshiram Manoharlal. [17] Srinivasan, A., & Benade, L. (2024). Considering the relevance of Jiddu Krishnamurti to contemporary Indian education: In conversation with the thought of Gert Biesta. Educational Philosophy and Theory. Advance online publication. [18] Nalls, A. (1987). The Oak Grove School: An alternative approach to education and its effects upon the creativity of its students [Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia]. [19] de la Tour, S., & de la Tour, K. (2011). Original mind and cosmic consciousness in the co-creative process. Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 6(1), 57–74. [20] Hoyt, M. (2009). Teaching with mindfulness: Pedagogy of being-with/for and without being-with/for. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 25(1). [21] de la Herrán Gascón, A., & Rodríguez Herrero, P. (2022). The radical inclusive curriculum: Contributions toward a theory of complete education. Asia Pacific Education Review, 25, 777–790. [22] Wang, F. (2011). A comparative study of the aesthetics of personality in Zhuangzi and J. Krishnamurti [Master’s thesis, Qinghai Minzu University]. [23] Zhuangzi. (1968). “which evens things out (Discourse on making all things equal)” (B. Watson, Trans.). In The complete works of Chuang Tzu (pp. 35–49). Columbia University Press. [24] Krishnamurti, J. (1999). The light in oneself. Shambhala. [25] Connolly, T. (2025). The Zhuangzi and transformative experience. Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, 24(2), 269–283. [26] LIM, J. S., & YAM, K. K. (2020). A Comparison between Zhuangzi and Krishnamurti from Philosophical Hermeneutics Approach. Journal of Sinological Studies, 11(1), 91-105. [27] Stalnaker, A. (2006). Overcoming our evil: Human nature and spiritual exercises in Xunzi and Augustine. Georgetown University Press. [28] Zhuangzi. (1968). “T’ien-ti (Heaven and earth)” (B. Watson, Trans.). In The complete works of Chuang Tzu (pp. 134–147). Columbia University Press. [29] Qiang, Y. (2009). The philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi and the bamboo-slip essay Hengxian. Frontiers of Philosophy in China, 4(1), 88–115. [30] Zhuangzi. (1968). “Tse-yang (Zeyang)” (B. Watson, Trans.). In The complete works of Chuang Tzu (pp. 312–320). Columbia University Press. [31] Chong, K.-C. (2011). Zhuangzi’s cheng xin and its implications for virtue and perspectives. Dao, 10(4), 427–443. [32] Zhuangzi. (2001). Zhuangzi: Basic writings (B. Watson, Trans.). Columbia University Press [33] Graham, A. C. (1990). Studies in Chinese philosophy and philosophical literature. suny Press. [34] Wang, B. (1991). Commentary on the Laozi (R. G. Henricks, Trans.). Columbia University Press. (Original work published ca. 226 CE) [35] Zhuangzi. (2001). Zhuangzi: Basic writings (B. Watson, Trans.). Columbia University Press [36] Wang Y B. Why Does "Butchering Oxen" Lead to the Dao: A New Interpretation of "Cook Ding Butchering Oxen" in Zhuangzi Yang Sheng Zhu. Philosophical Trends, 2024, (12):44-51.